World War II, was the bloodiest, costliest and most devasting global military conflict in the history of humanity. Fought from September 1, 1939, to September 2, 1945, between the Axis powers and the Allies, World War II claimed 57 million civilian and military lives. Nearly seventy nations were involved in the conflict; fighting took place on the African, Asian and European continents. The geopolitical landscape of the 20th century was redefined by World War II. The war was borne out of many of the residual effects of World War I, while the conclusion of the war set the stage for competition between the former Allies which led to the onset of the Cold War.
Setting and Causes
Main article: Causes of World War II
The causes for and lead-up to war in Europe and the Pacific were different for each theatre. In Europe, they centered on the fall-out from World War I, with Germany's desire to escape the bounds of the Treaty of Versailles, the rise of Fascism and the ambition of its leaders, and the relative instability of Central and Eastern Europe after the breakup of the Austro-Hungarian Empire as key kindling for the eruption of war there. In the Pacific, Japan's efforts to become a world power and the rise of militaristic leadership there led to ever-expanding military operations in China and a thirst for resources unmet by limited supply within Japanese borders, eventually causing the nation to violently enter the war.
European prelude
Benito Mussolini ("Il Duce") with Adolf Hitler
Main article: Events preceding World War II in Europe
In the 1920s and 1930s, Fascist regimes took power in both Italy and Germany while fascist parties influenced politics throughout Central Europe. In particular, the National Socialists, or Nazis, of Germany with their leader Adolf Hitler, were very vehement about building a model state. A strong sense of nationalism was grown and exploited, as were pillars of fascism such as reverence of the military and obedience to authority. This was translated into a strong German state with a powerful military built on new strategic thinking, an industry growing rapidly in a pro-business environment, and political support growing for recovering territory lost in World War I as well as recovery of the nation's honor. In Italy, Benito Mussolini had much of the same rhetoric, but was less successful in transforming the nation to it.
Soon after Hitler came to power, rearmament was made a priority. Money was spent researching new tools of war and building military industries. Agreements with the Soviet Union allowed secret training of new units outside of the limitations of the Versailles Treaty. In 1936, Hitler ordered re-occupation of the Rhineland and in 1938, Nazi Germany annexed Austria.
Following the encorporation of Austria into Greater Germany, Hitler demanded the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia. Not willing to go to war, the United Kingdom and France decided to discard their military alliances with the Czechoslovak Republic and signed the Munich Agreement on September 28 in an effort to appease the Germans. By March 16th, 1939, Germany had fully occupied Czechslovakia. Italy, not wanting to be outdone by the Germans, annexed Albania on April 12th.
On May 22nd, Italy and Germany formalized their military alliance with the Pact of Steel. On August 23rd, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, a non-aggression treaty between Germany and the Soviets which also contained a secret agreement to divide Eastern Europe between the two powers. This latter agreement came somewhat as a shock to the West, especially in light of the powers support of different sides in the recently concluded Spanish Civil War.
Asian prelude
Main article: Events preceding World War II in Asia
In Asia, Japan was already involved in China by the start of World War II. The broken nation was a regular outlet for Japanese militarism and Japanese controlled areas grew rapidly in the late 1930s. The Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) which erupted after both the Chinese Nationalists and the Communist Party of China reduced their conflict with each other in order to face the increasing Japanese presence in China. Initially, China had some success against the Japanese, but ultimately the tide turned for the Japanese, and they rapidly captured much of Western China. Japan's offensive was marked by cases of abuses of the civilian population, in particular the Rape of Nanking, which gave rise to increasing international pressure on Japan to withdraw. The United States, while isolationist in its relations with Europe, expressed particular concern over Japanese activities, and began using sanctions on shipments of raw materials to Japan, notably oil.
Japan had gained control of most Chinese urban and industrial centers before the start of World War II. However, China did not possess two resources that were highly valued components of Japanese growth and security: oil and rubber. There were two lines of thought amongst the Imperial General Staff of how to obtain these resources: those who wished to strike north into Soviet territory and seize a large portion of Siberia, and those who thought it best to strike south into the European colonies of Southeast Asia. It is often thought that the Soviet-Japanese Border War led the Japanese to disregard the northern path as unattainable.
European Theatre
Main article: European Theatre of World War II
German and Soviet expansion
On September 1, only a week after signing the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, Germany invaded Poland, leading Britain and France to declare war on Germany citing their treaty obligations. On September 17th, Soviet forces invaded Poland from the east, as prescribed within their pact with Germany. Between this second front for which Poland was poorly positioned to contest and the defeats suffered at the hands of Germany in the west, the battle for Poland was won by Germany and the Soviet Union within little more than one month. By October 6th, Poland was fully occupied between German and Soviet forces and their allies.
Soon after, Soviet forces began the occupation of Baltic Republics but Soviet demands were resisted by Finland, leading to the Soviet-initiated Winter War on November 30 and lasting until March, 1940. During this time the Germans and Western Allies had been going through an almost strange calmness with no major actions being taken. This ended when both sides made plans to capture the remaining Scandinavian countries and the valuable Swedish iron ore. These two operations were, coincidently, almost simultaniously launched in April and resulted in the German occupation of Denmark and a conflict in Norway, the first direct clash between the Western Allies and the Axis. An Anglo-French force was dispatched to contest the German advance in Norway, although this was not able to prevent German occupation of the country, especially after May 10, after which support for the expedition waned and the forces were thereafter withdrawn.
The German attack on France and the Low Countries was rapid and effective. Within a month the British forces were forced to evacuate the continent and Italy, wanting to gain territory, declared war on the crippled France. By the end of June, France capitulated, having the majority of it directly occupied by German forces and the rest controlled by the puppet Vichy state.
After the fall of France, only Britain remained opposed to Germany. Against Britain, Germany launched a two-pronged assault. The first was the naval battles in the Atlantic, in which German U-boats, now able to use port facilities in France, faced off with the Royal Navy and attempted to starve Britain by preventing merchants from the west from resupplying it. The second was the direct aerial combat over the island by the Luftwaffe to destroy the RAF, thereby gaining the air superiority needed to mount an invasion. By 1941, with Britain still standing and other concerns rising, Germany withdrew its fighters from the skies over England.
The Eastern Front
Main article: Eastern Front (WWII)
The largest offensive yet of the war was to come in June, 1941, when Germany broke its non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union by launching Operation Barbarossa, a mammoth invasion plan designed to seize Moscow by the end of the year. German forces made historic advancement, capturing millions of Soviet soldiers, and wiping out entire Soviet armies. They covered great distances, however time caught up with them, and they did not reach their objectives. Instead, with the onset of winter, the Soviets were able to counterattack, stopping the German drive at the very outskirts of Moscow.
Despite setbacks at the end of 1941, the Germans launched a fresh offensive in 1942, reaching the Caucasus Mountains, although this was answered again that winter by Soviet counter-offensive operations which caused dire losses to the Germans, highlighted by the destruction of the German 6th Army at Stalingrad. During the summer of 1943, the Battle of Kursk destroyed many irreplaceable German units, and for the remainder of the war, the Soviets on the Eastern Front were able to mount a series of offensive operations through the year. By the end of 1944, the Soviets had reclaimed much of the territory lost to Germany and were able to progressively push the depleted German forces west, ultimately driving into Eastern Europe and Germany itself at the end of the war. Many of Germany's allies fell as the Soviets advanced into Rumania, Hungary, and the Balkans. The Soviets finally captured Berlin in 1945.
The war in the east would involve more men and material than any other battle front in the war. Offensives and counter-offensives would cover thousands of square miles swinging the front line east and west for three years. Some measure of the scale of the conflict can be measured by the amount of military effort expended by the belligerants on this front. In all, nearly 80% of the German war effort was expended on the Eastern Front. Practically the entire Soviet war effort was committed to the Eastern Front, as was significant Allied materiel aid provided to the Soviets.
The Western European Campaign
Main article: Western Front (WWII)
On June 6, 1944, the western Allies invaded German-occupied France with landings on the coast of Normandy. With the success of this operation, they advanced across France, driving the Germans out of the country, often challenged as much by supply limitations as by the retreating enemy. Additional landings in the south of France completed the liberation of the nation.
Reaching the German border, the Allies had to pause for supply. This gave the Germans the chance to reorganize, and firm up defenses against the next offensive. This came in the form of Operation Market-Garden, an attempt to punch through the Netherlands and over the Rhine and end the war in 1944. The operation failed, and the Allies were unable to press forward as quickly as planned.
The defeat of the Axis in Europe
Main article: The end of World War II in Europe
The situation of Germany at the end of 1944 was not hopeful. The western Allies were on the borders of Germany in the west, within an offensive of seizing the industrial Rhineland region. The Russians were similarly positioned in the east, with the German capital Berlin in their sights. Anglo-American strategic bombing had reduced much of Germany to rubble, forcing industry to disperse.
With the nation under siege from east, west, and above, Hitler planned a final gamble to stave off defeat. Attempting to recreate the success of the 1940 offensive into the Low Countries, German forces attacked in the middle of winter in an attempt to cut off the Allied forces in Belgium. The Allied lines bent but did not break, and eventually the Allies prevailed in what became known as the Battle of the Bulge. In the east, fortification of every point was ordered in desperate defense of the capital. This too failed, and the Red Army captured Berlin at the end of April, 1945.
With the fall of Berlin and the death of Hitler, what remained in German hands was a small sliver of Europe from the northern tip of Norway down to the upper portion of Italy. On May 8, 1945, German forces surrendered unconditionally.
Asia-Pacific Theatre
Main article: Pacific War
The Asia-Pacific Theatre of World War II represented a stark contrast to the European portion of the war. Centered on the expansion of Japan throughout the Western Pacific Ocean and East Asia, naval engagements and amphibious warfare were more prevalent in many of the battles than large land forces as were common in Europe.
Japanese expansion
The Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) was already underway in East Asia at the time World War II began in Europe, leading some to cite the Japanese invasion of China on July 7, 1937 as the start of war in the Pacific Theatre. However, as a part of World War II, the start date is most often referred to as December 7, 1941, when Japan declared war on the United States and the Allies with surprise attacks against Pearl Harbor, the Philippines, and various colonial possessions of the European powers throughout East Asia and the Western Pacific.
Japan acted quickly to secure what it considered to be defensive cordon of islands in the Pacific from which it could sap the American will to carry on the conflict. In China and Southeast Asia, Japan continued to expand its area of control, in an ever more demanding drive for natural resources.
Six months from their entry into the war, the Japanese and American fleets met in battle in the Central Pacific. The resulting Battle of Midway devastated the core of the Japanese aircraft carrier fleet, and marked the end of Japanese advances in the Pacific. Japan continued to seek another decisive fleet engagement to even the score, but the United States instead pursued a strategy to apply pressure along the Japanese perimeter, while using island-hopping amphibious operations to move the Japanese back.
The defeat of Japan
As the Japanese had expanded, they left garrisons on the many small Pacific Islands they controlled. The United States plan for dealing with these was to invade those that were critical for continuing the advance on Japan, while neutralizing those that were not to be invaded. Many very costly assaults were made by the United States Marine Corps to secure islands and airbases for the advance.
At the southern end of the Japanese advance, on the island of New Guinea, Japan was halted from capturing the entire island by determined resistance offered by Australian forces. These two armies fought in the jungles in nearly unbearable conditions for control of the island. While New Guinea itself offered little in prize, containing the battle there prevented any threat to Australia itself from materializing.
In Southeast Asia, Japan had advanced rapidly through British possessions there, until meeting heavy resistance in Burma. British forces, heavily consisting of Indian Army units, beat back the Japanese at the battle of Kohima-Imphal and the Japanese were thus denied their threat to India or to the vital supply lines to Chinese forces opposing the Japanese forces there.
Late in the war, the United States was able to found bases closer to Japan and begin aerial bombardment of the home islands. While not as concentrated as the bombing of Germany, they were very effective due to the nature of Japanese construction and relative unpreparedness of the Japanese to deal with the threat. In addition, the loss of territory and more importantly the loss of shipping crippled Japan's ability to gather the resources she needed. As a result, Japanese industry was never capable of mounting the kind of production that even late-war Germany could maintain.
The Allies had plans for an invasion of Japan, but these were usurped by the development of the nuclear bomb in the United States. Two of these were dropped on the Japanese cities of Nagasaki and Hiroshima. Presented with an unpalatable, but inevitable decision, Japan surrendered to the Allies on September 2, 1945--six years and one day after Germany launched the attack on Poland.
Mediterranean Theatre
The Balkans Campaign
Main article: Balkans Campaign
While Germany was concentrating its efforts against the United Kingdom, Italy launched its own offensive against Greece on October 28th, 1940. This invasion was a complete failure, as not only did the Greeks drive the Italians back into Albania, it also caused the formerly-neutral Greece to side with the Allies, giving Britian permission to land troops and aid in the defense. While Italy was in this struggle with Greece, neighbouring Yugoslavia went through a coup d'état on March 27, 1941; ousting the government which only two days earlier had signed the Tripartite Pact.
Stalemated against Britain in the skies above the island, Germany diverted its attention to stabilizing the Balkans. Plans were drawn up and Germany launched a dual invasion of Yugoslavia and Greece on April 6, sweeping through the region and fully occupying it following the Battle of Crete.
The North African Campaign
Main article: North African Campaign
In August of 1940, with the large French presense in North Africa now officially neutral in the conflict, Italy launched an assault on British Somaliland in East Africa and followed up in September with an invasion of British-held Egypt. Both of these offenses failed, with the British managing to drive the Italians off in both campaigns and capturing large areas of Italian territory, including Italian East Africa and a large amount of Libya.
With Italy's failure, and the possibility of the Axis being driven from Africa entirely, Germany responded by sending units, commanded by the Deutsches Afrikakorps, to Libya to reinforce their ally in February, 1941. This unit, along with the Italians, would fight a see-saw battle along the Cyrenaica coast against the British Eighth Army in 1941 and 1942. Companioning this, the British Royal Navy and Italian Regia Marina fought for control of supply routes in the Mediterranean Sea, especially around the vital base of Malta.
By early 1942, British success in defeating the Regia Marina led to the Allies having far greater supplies and materials. This enabled British forces to make a massive push following the successful Battle of El Alamein, taking nearly the entirety of Libya and driving the Axis into Tunisia. In November, 1942, this situation was worsened for the Axis when the United States executed the Operation Torch landings in Morocco, pincering Axis forces. By May 1943, all Axis forces in North Africa were defeated following the Tunisia Campaign.
Meanwhile, in the Middle East, Allied invasions of French held Syria and Lebanon as well as Iraq, whose government was sympathetic to Germany, secured Allied control of the region.
The Italian Campaign
Main article: Italian Campaign
With North Africa secure, Anglo-American forces landed in Sicily in 1943, beginning the invasion of what was considered the 'soft underbelly of Europe'. The invasion of Sicily was successful, precipitating the fall of Benito Mussolini's government and an armistice between the Allies and the new Italian government. German forces intervened to avoid Allied conquest of the entirety of Italy, and after the initial landings at Salerno, the continued Allied advance was a slow, costly matter through difficult terrain defended by veteran German forces.
Wartime politics
Temp note: More needs to be elaborated on about this aspect of the war. Perhaps once there is some good stuff here, the picture of the Big Three can be moved here?
Civil impact
World War II brought with it unprecedented civilian suffering. Of the more than 50 million deaths attributed to the war, more than half were civilians, killed in a variety of manners. Many died as a result of combat operations, and many more as a result of the disruptions to food and essential human services combined with the destruction of homes and civic facilities by the war. Many more died as a result of strategic warfare specifically targeting civilian areas, designed to reduce popular support for governments and destroy the productivity of the civilian population towards the war effort. Additionally, many were executed on the basis of their nationality, ethnicity, and religion.
Holocaust
Mass grave at Bergen Belsen concentration camp 1945
Main article: Holocaust
The most prominent and best organized campaign to kill civilians was the variety of programs initiated by the Nazis of Germany. Initially targeting their own Jewish population, along with other groups of undesirables, the German program began with camps to isolate these populations, followed with forced labor and finally outright extermination of the population. Jews, homosexuals, and the disabled were early candidates, but political opponents such as socialists and outspoken religious persons (primarily Catholics), were also included.
Once the war began, and as German conquests grew, newly occupied lands were included in the effort. Poland in particular suffered greatly, with nearly all of its Jewish population as well as a good number of Catholics being exterminated. Russians and other conquered Slavic peoples would also be encamped and die in huge numbers at the hands of Germany.
It may never be known how many perished in concentration camps, in extermination programs, and as a result of general persecution at the hands of German authorities. Estimates however run over 10 million deaths, of which 5 to 6 million were Jews killed as a result of targeted extermination programs.
Soviet camps
Main article: Gulag
Germany was not alone in organized slaughter of civilians. Stalin's Soviet Union also engaged in such activities. Captured German troops suffered greatly, but so did civilians from locales liberated from the Germans, many of whom were accused of collaborating. In areas where there was collaboration on a large scale, the price paid by civilians was even higher. Russian prisoners captured by Germany who were lucky enough to survive German camps would often be greeted by the Soviets as traitors and put through similar treatment.
Since such activities continued after the war, and because Soviet records are not clear, it is impossible to clearly know how many died from Soviet persecution. It is especially unclear how many Russians suffered in this manner.
China
While the Holocaust perpetrated by Germany is widely known and was well organized, it is rivaled in the sheer number of deaths by the civilian carnage created by the Japanese forces in China. As the Germans viewed their eastern neighbors, Japan viewed the Chinese as less than human and widespread commitment of war crimes was seen as acceptable and was in fact encouraged by the leadership. Estimates are very rough as to the extent of this behaviour, but may well have exceeded 10 million deaths.
Western Allies
Main article: Japanese American internment
Persecution of civilians was not limited to the Axis or totalitarian powers in the war. Citizens of the Western Allies as well suffered in cases where they were descendants of Axis nationalities. In particular American citizens of Japanese heritage were encamped in internment camps, most for the duration of the war. It must be made clear that there was never an intent upon the United States to cause death, although conditions did cause some. However, families and individuals suffered greatly under this program. The United States government has since apologized and made reparations available to the victims of this program.
Strategic warfare
Main article: Strategic Bombing During World War II
Initiated by Germany as a way of terrorizing and demoralizing urban populations to speed German conquests, strategic warfare revolved around the use of air power to strike enemy cities. The effectiveness of the German campaigns were limited due to the relatively poor design of their bombers for this mission and small size of their air force.
Near the middle of the war, the Allies began using large-scale strategic warfare against Germany. Using more effective bombers in greater quantities, they were able to create devastating impacts on German cities. By the end of the war, they were able to literally turn urban centers into fireballs, practically melting the city. The civilian losses were heavy, and in Germany were estimated around 300,000. Whether or not the campaign truly helped bring victory quicker remains unclear.
Japan's civilian population was even more specifically attacked. Unlike Germany, who had an industrial base that allowed industry to be the primary target and the civilian population secondary, in Japan the nature of their industry made this impractical. Japan's civilian population was crowded into urban regions in cities that were built primarily of wood (unlike Germany's heavily stone-based architecture), which lent them to be attacked by incendiary bombs creating fires that overwhelmed entire cities. The United States employed newer and bigger bombers than against Germany as well.
Ultimately though, the greatest strike came in the form of two nuclear attacks, each targeting a civilian population. Total Japanese casualties to the bombing was around 400,000. The campaign was however credited with precipitating the Japanese surrender.
Outcome
Main article: Outcome of World War II
The direct outcome of the war was the victory of the Allies. Each of the Axis powers had been forced to accept unconditional surrender. Germany was occupied by forces from the United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and France, while Austria was divided from Germany and similarly occupied. Japan was occupied by the United States while the Soviet Union occupied the Eastern European nations.
Unlike World War I, when debilitating restrictions were put upon the defeated nations that did not allow them to rejoin the world community without conflict, the defeated powers were offered aid to rehabilitate them and return them to the world as peaceful, constructive members of the global community. To this end both Germany and Japan have again become influential and important nations without having to fight a war to do so.
The failure of the League of Nations to prevent the war brought the formation of new and revamped international body, the United Nations, which remains today as the preeminent organization working for international peace and cooperation.
Lasting effects
Main article: Global effects of World War II
Cracks soon developed between the Allies however, as their differing ideologies brought them into conflict. Each had laid claim to specific areas of the Axis regions. In Europe, each formed a strategic alliance amongst its area of influence. In the west, the United States, Britain, and France formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, or NATO. In the east, the Soviet Union formed the Warsaw Pact amongst Eastern European nations. The lasting stand-off between the two would become of the legacies of the conflict, the Cold War.
Throughout the world, anti-colonialism was encouraged by the end of the war. Some of these conflicts became battlegrounds for the Cold War powers, but many happened before that period. In particular, Britain and France relinquished much of their colonial empires quickly after the war. India broke from Britain quickly, as did the Philippines from the United States. Some divorces were contested, such as Indochina and many African colonies.
One of the most powerful new nations to emerge however was Israel. On the heels of the Holocaust, the world's Jewish population had new vigor in creating their own state. The use of Jewish troops had given them combat experience, which was soon put to the test as Israel fought for its independence and survival.
Technology and weaponry
Main article: Military technology during World War II
World War II saw unprecedented leaps in technology in virtually every field. Technological developments often led to strategic advantages at different stages and often helped shape the course of the war. Production of military equipment by all combatants was critical to the success of increasingly mechanized forces. Ultimately, the Allies' ability to vastly out-produce the Axis nations figured prominently in allowing them to win the war.
Involvement and impact
Main article: Participants in World War II
No nation on earth was unaffected by World War II in some way. Most nations at some point joined either the Axis or Allies, and a few fought on both sides. A number of nations were created by the war, and some did not survive it.
Some of the more prominent participants are listed here:
- Germany: The primary power of the Axis in Europe, Germany's invasion of Poland marked the start of the war, and the end of the war in the European Theatre only came about with its surrender.
- France: The major continental power of Europe, France declared war on Germany following the invasion of Poland. France was not enthusiastic about going to war and was found unprepared for the Germans when they were invaded in 1940. The fall of France left a German puppet government in Vichy France, although a number of French possessions remained loyal to the Allies as the Free French.
- United Kingdom & Commonwealth: Backbone of the Allies, the United Kingdom and Commonwealth nations of Canada, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand, remained unbeaten by Germany even at the Nazis' high-water mark. The British could never match American production or Soviet manpower, but they were a stauch participant in the Allied victory in both theatres.
- Italy: A supposed ally of Germany's at the start of the war, Italy only joined the fighting once France's fate was sealed in 1940. Failed attempts to capture Greece and Egypt, followed by naval failings in the Mediterranean Sea demonstrated Italy's unpreparedness for the war. Invaded by the Allies in 1943, Italy collapsed, with a new Italian government rising to work alongside the Allies.
- Soviet Union : Signatory to a non-aggression treaty with Germany, the Soviets joined in the invasion of Poland, and attempted to conquer Finland. However, in 1941, Germany attacked unannounced, and the Soviets became part of the Allies. The Soviets suffered horribly at the hands of the Germans, but eventually turned the tide back and captured Berlin to end the war in Europe.
- Japan : One of the major Axis powers, Japan none-the-less joined the war for their own reasons. Poor in natural resources, they sought them throughout the Western Pacific rim and East Asia. Unfortunately, they were unable to match the Allied effort, and were driven back to ultimately suffer nuclear attack of their home islands, ending the war finally.
- China: Hardly recognizable as a nation when the war started, China bore the brunt of Japanese militarism for more than a decade. Resistance to Japan was provided by both the Nationalists supported by the United States, and the Communists, who engaged in more guerrilla warfare against Japan.
- United States : Not sure how it should be involved in the war, the United States was abruptly brought into the conflict by Japanese attack, and German declaration of war. The United States used its relatively safe industrial base to supply all Allied nation to some degree and to build its own forces to maintain efforts in both Europe and the Pacific.
Summary
World War II was the largest armed conflict in history. No conflict before or since has involved more combatants, covered more of the earth, or caused more death and destruction. However, its immensity was only one of the notable aspects of the conflict. Some others worthy of note are:
- Broad historical impact: Most nations of the world were eventually party to one side or the other in the war. A few fought on both sides at different stages. Actual combat took place on every populated continent except South America. Even neutral nations were profoundly affected by the conduct of the war and the results of it.
- Technological development: In most technological aspects, progress was rapid due to the demand for ever improved technology on the battle field. This applied especially to all areas of military technology from aircraft and vehicles to electronics and computers.
- Nuclear development: World War II spawned a competition between a number of the combatants to harness nuclear power and develop nuclear weapons. The United States won this competition and used some of the world's first nuclear weapons to precipitate the end of the war.
- Strategic warfare: The war became the first to see wide-spread application of strategic warfare. War was no longer just about defeating the enemy army and cutting their access to raw materials, but involved directly attacking the enemy's urban and industrial centers to destroy enemy production and morale.
- Resistance to occupation : Guerrilla warfare was not new, but in nearly every nation that was occupied by an enemy (particularly by Germany or Japan), there arose an organized resistance movement. While usually unable to free their land alone, they caused heavy drain on their occupiers and ensured that the territory was never fully conquered. This demonstrated the impracticality of attempting to conquer and absorb by force an unwilling people.
See also
List of World War II topics
References
- Churchill, Winston (1948-53), The Second World War, 6 vols.
- Gilbert, Martin (1995) Second World War, Phoenix, ISBN 1857993462
- Keegan, John (1989) The Second World War
- Liddel Hart, Sir Basil (1970), History of the Second World War Cassel & Co; Pan Books,1973, London
- Williamson Murray and Allan R. Millett (2000) A War to Be Won: Fighting the Second World War ISBN 067400163X
- Richard Overy, Why the Allies Won, Pimlico, 1995. ISBN 0712674535
- Gerhard L. Weinberg , A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (1994) ISBN 0521443172
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